Lubana Banjara Sikhs Gunpowder traders

The Saltpetre Revolution during the 16^th  century was a pivotal period in world military history. Initially dominated by the monopoly of Lubana Banjara Sikh traders, the production of gunpowder evolved into a more open and competitive industry. This transformation was largely driven by the ongoing conflict between the Islamic Gunpowder empires and the Christian world, which significantly escalated the demand for saltpetre, a crucial ingredient in gunpowder.

The Lubana Banjara Sikhs, known for their expertise in trade and resource management, controlled a significant portion of the saltpetre supply. Their monopoly allowed them to influence the global market, ensuring a steady supply to various military powers. However, as the wars between the Islamic and Christian states intensified, the demand for gunpowder skyrocketed, making it imperative for other players to enter the market.

This period saw the emergence of new production techniques and the establishment of alternative trade routes to secure saltpetre supplies from India. The increased competition led to innovations in gunpowder manufacturing, improving its quality and effectiveness. European powers, particularly the East India Company, began to import large quantities of saltpetre from India from Lubana Sikhs, disrupting the established trade dynamics.

The intense military rivalries necessitated vast amounts of gunpowder, self-sufficiency in saltpetre production in India. This shift not only decentralized the industry but also spurred advancements in chemical processing and industrial production techniques. The Saltpetre Revolution thus marked a critical juncture where military needs drove technological and economic changes, reshaping global trade and military strategies.

The best quality saltpetre, however, was only found in abundance in India, which led to a significant boost in the Indian economy. Earlier, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europe had compensated for the inferior nitrate quality of its domestic saltpetre, first by the so-called corning process and second by the potash process that substituted potassium nitrate (KNO3) for the inferior calcium nitrate (Ca (NO3)2)( Sewell, Forgotten Empire, page 126). Lubanas/Banjaras, were supplying saltpetre to both the Ottoman empire and European countries, resulting in the generation of significant revenue growth for the Sikh economy.

As the demand for saltpetre grew, a large population of Lubana Sikhs settled in Egypt and established Tandas (settlements)( The reference mentioned, The Pictorial Bible Judges Job, page 700, John Kitto, 1855, can be found in the New Testament of the Bible, specifically in a book written in the 19^th century by John Kitto. This particular edition includes illustrations and spans from the books of Judges to Job.). They also established forts at significant seaports worldwide, including Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Russia, Europe, Africa, and other parts of the globe(Despite this, a large Lubana population remains in the region. Initially, Sikhs of Guru Nanak patshah, many of them have since converted to Islam due to Islamic extremism). Sikh preaching centres were established in Africa, indicating the spread of Sikhism to new regions. Additionally, the Khalsa economy gained significance beyond the Indian subcontinent, and a large number of forts were constructed by the Banjaras during this time to safeguard arms and ammunition.

By the 16^th century, India had become the primary source of saltpetre, a crucial component in Gunpowder production for the European market. Mostly, it was produced in regions such as Bihar, Awadh, the Punjab, Ajmer, and the Coromandel Coast. Bihar, in particular, emerged as the largest producer, supplying almost all of the saltpetre for the expanding European market. Both it’s processor and trader were Sikhs. At the end of the seventeenth century, Bihar produced around 4,250,000 kg of refined saltpetre, with over half of it being exported to Ottoman, Safavid, Dutch, and English companies. While less than 20% of the saltpetre was consumed within India, around 80 % was traded globally. The main saltpetre grounds in India were located in the districts of Bihar, Champaran, Hajipur, Saran, and Tirhut(ARA, VOC 1061, Leonard Wolff, ‘Remonstrantie van de gelegentheyt van Ballaguatta’ (1605), ff. 185a–b.). Guru Har Rai sahib established 360 preaching centres in Awah region and Bihar region so that a humanitarian rule could be set up(Hari Ram Gupta, History of Sikhs Vol 1, page 180). A large number of people in the Awadh region have embraced Sikhism since the time of Guru Nanak patshah, many of whom belong to tribes involved in saltpetre processing. Guru Tegh Bahadar patshah also spent time in the Bihar region. Guru Gobind Singh patshah was born in Patna, Bihar. Patna emerged as a key centre for the saltpetre trade, initially boosted by the production of sugar, silk, and opium, with saltpetre becoming significant slightly later. This growth began after the Mughal conquest of Bihar in 1570 _AD and continued unabated until the first half of the eighteenth century. The decision of Subadar Azimuddin to make Patna his capital in the early eighteenth century further accelerated the city’s development, propelling it ahead of other towns. In 1632 _AD, the Mughals expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, opening the port to Banjara Sikh traders. That same year, the Dutch moved to Hughli from Piply, where they had been established since 1627 _AD. In Patna, they decided to focus on saltpetre rather than cotton and silk. Unlike the Portuguese, the Dutch integrated Patna into the network of Chinsurah and Qasimbazar, opening new opportunities for Patna and Bihar(Aniruddha Ray, Towns and Cities of Medieval India: ·A Brief Survey, page 418).

Patna’s market saw tremendous development between 1629 and 1643 _AD, as noted by Sebastian Manrique, who was surprised by the abundance of various commodities. The improved economy of Bihar is further attested by Francois Bernier, who noted that Bihar’s revenue in the 1660s _AD was nearly double that of 1595-6 _AD, though his figures for Bengal and Orissa seemed inaccurate. Bernier highlighted the prosperity brought by Patna’s saltpetre trade, with factories refining saltpetre around the city for export via Hughli. The Banjar Lubana Sikhs were actively controlling this saltpetre trade.

The French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier visited India multiple times from the 1640s to 1660s _AD, noting Patna’s size and cosmopolitan nature. He described an incident involving two Dutchmen in the city and remarked on Patna’s large Armenian merchant presence, specifically Khoja Safar, who was influential in the city. Nicolai Manucci also mentioned Patna’s bustling markets and the primary products of cotton, silk, and saltpetre, with the latter being a major export through Bengal.

Later Nanaks recognized the importance of saltpetre and developed the formula for creating the best gunpowder, which was handed over to Lubana Banjara Sikh traders. Banjaras and Sikligars continue to create some of the finest weapons even in the seventeenth century, generated significant demand worldwide and created immense revenue. As imported Indian saltpetre began to replace locally sourced supplies in the latter half of the seventeenth century, English scientists shifted their focus from production projects to studying the chemical properties of the substance. Saltpetre continued to be a topic of intellectual curiosity(David Cressy, SALTPETER, The Mother of Gunpowder, Oxford University Press, page 26). In the late 16^th century, Guru Arjan patshah even documented the process of making the best cannon in Banjara Pothi(Tony Ballantyne, Textures of the Sikh Past New Historical Perspectives, page 33). The Sikh forts designed by the Guru sahibans were particularly noteworthy due to their unique gunpowder usage capabilities. The special parapet design enabled a single Sikh soldier to use three or four muskets simultaneously, unmatched by other contemporary forts. The Sikh forts’ unique design made them stand out and contributed significantly to their uniqueness.

In the late15^th century, even though European traders were actively involved in importing and transporting commodities, including saltpetre, during this period, it is noteworthy that Banjara Sikh traders held significant control over maritime trade. Two-thirds of the ships travelling to Arab, Africa, and Europe belonged to Lubana Banjara Sikhs. This established major Sikh centres in Africa, Jerusalem(Al Hindi Sarai in Jerusalem is a major Sikh Centre), and Europe. One of the most famous personalities in Sikh history, Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana, was a prominent figure in the gunpowder trade in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe during the 17^th century(Baba Harnam Singh and Diwan Singh Mehram, Mahal Sikh Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana 1940, page 27). His ancestors had initiated this trade practice in these regions, and Makhan Shah continued it. Makhan Shah was known to be one of the wealthiest traders of his time, and his success in this trade contributed significantly to the overall prosperity of the Sikhs during this era.

In the late 15^th century, as the Ottoman empire gained control over land trade routes during this period and on the Red Sea and threatened Christian powers at sea known as the “Mediterranean,” Christianity faced significant danger across Europe in the late15^th century.( Liviu Pilat and Ovidiu Cristea wrote a book called, The Ottoman Threat and Crusading on the Eastern Border of Christendom During the 15^th century, in 2017. The book explores the historical context of the Ottoman Empire’s expansion and its impact on the border regions of Christendom during the 15^th century.) In response to this threat against Christian faith sovereignty, nations such as Spain (including Morocco), Portugal (including Brazil), England (including Wales), France (including Corsica), and the Netherlands (including Belgium) were requested by the Church to embark on an expedition in search for an alternative sea route leading towards India’ subcontinent so that saltpetre could be procured for gunpowder production purposes while preserving Christian faith sovereignty nations against Ottoman threats. Vasco da Gama’s expedition to India in 1498 _AD resulted from this request by the Church(In, History of Portugal, written by António Henrique R. de Oliveira Marques in 1972 and published by Columbia University Press, the author provides an overview of the history of Portugal. The specific page mentioned, pages 158-160 and 362-370, likely delve into essential events, themes, or periods within Portuguese history). Christopher Columbus’ primary goal was to discover a new sea route leading towards Asia’s Far East regions, such as India, for want of saltpetre. His voyages ultimately led to European powers’ colonization of the Americas. Columbus’ first voyage in 1492 _AD resulted in the “discovery” of the Caribbean islands, later claimed by Spain. The Spanish established colonies in the Americas, losing the sovereignty of the indigenous populations who inhabited the region. This colonization also facilitated the exploitation of natural resources and the enslavement of native populations by European traders.

Church-led Christian countries launched expeditions to India in search of gunpowder to halt the Ottoman empire(Manuel I of Portugal and the End of the Toleration of Islam in Castile, Marriage Diplomacy, Propaganda, and Portuguese Imperialism in Renaissance Europe, 1495-1505_AD, François Soyer), as they could not obtain it through the land trade route controlled by the Islamic Gun Powder empires(THE PORTUGUESE EMPIRE IN ASIA, 1500–1700_AD, Sanjay Subrahmanyam page 270.Chāpra, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite, Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.). Moreover, they had no experience travelling through the harsh weather conditions in that region. The Lubanas had established infrastructure such as sarais, forts, and wells that facilitated travel from India to Africa and Europe. Vasco da Gama explored sea routes to India to import Indian saltpetre to Europe(De Oliveira Marques, António Henrique R. (1972). History of Portugal, pages 158–160, 362–370. Ibid, page 183. English records of madras indicate that Portuguese settlers at San Thome traded in saltpetre on a large scale in the 1690s.). The Dutch Vereingte Oostindische Compagine (VOC) established the first regular large-scale exports of saltpetre from India to Europe in the second decade of the 17^th century, soon followed by the company of a London merchant. It is evident that, in the 16^th century, Europeans did not know sea routes to India, while the Banjaras and Lubanas had been engaging in trading activities with Asia, Africa, and Europe for over a millennium(The Dutch East India Company (VOC), Canon van Nederland. Archived from the original on 1 December 2010, Retrieved 19 March 2011,VOC Knowledge Centre – VOC Beginnings, VOC-Kenniscentrum (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 1 October 2022, Retrieved 6 October 2022.).

Most English saltpetre men practised their trade without technical manuals, learning through hands-on experience or guidance from seasoned operatives. Their primary knowledge was focused on effective methods of digging, boiling, and supplying saltpetre to ordnance contractors. Occasionally, entrepreneurs or investors introduced new schemes to improve saltpetre production, often inspired by foreign travel or imported texts. Governments were receptive to these innovations, which frequently highlighted the vital role of urine, a concept explored by chemical philosophers. However, despite these ambitious projects, the most successful methods remained traditional and piecemeal until imports from East India reduced the need for local production(David Cressy, SALTPETER, The Mother of Gunpowder, Oxford University Press, page 22). Banjara Sikhs developed modern techniques for extracting saltpetre and established factories across the Indian subcontinent for this purpose.

Europeans primarily arrived in India in pursuit of saltpetre, a crucial component for gunpowder production. The Portuguese Company’s presence in India began in earnest in the late 15^th century with the arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498 _AD. He was warmly welcomed by the local king Zamorina at Calicut, where the Portuguese established their first factory in 1503 _AD. The following year, they set up a second factory at Cannanore. In 1509 _AD, the Portuguese governor Francisco de Almeida defeated the combined fleet of Gujarat, Egypt, and Zamorin in the Battle of Diu. Alfonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor, captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 _AD and made it the capital of the Portuguese in 1530 _AD. The Portuguese continued to expand their influence in India, capturing Damán in 1559 _AD. However, their power declined in the late 17^th century as the Dutch conquered all Portuguese forts on the Malabar coast in 1663 _AD. The Portuguese also lost Surat to the English in 1612 _AD, signaling the end of their dominance in India(Frederick Charles Danvers, 1894. The Portuguese in India _A.D,1481 ,1571.).

In 1561 _AD, during Elizabeth-I’s reign as Queen of England and Ireland, England was at war with Philip II of Spain. It faced a shortage of Indian saltpetre, a crucial component in producing gunpowder. As England did not have any domestic sources of saltpetre production at the time, Elizabeth-I was forced to pay 300 pounds gold (equivalent to around £400000 today) to the German captain Gerrard Honrik for his manual “Instructions for making saltpetre to grow.” This manual contained the secrets of nitraries, which were essential for producing saltpetre. The document, a translation of the German “Feuerwerkbuch,” provided England with the knowledge it needed to begin producing saltpetre domestically, thereby reducing its reliance on imports.( SP Dom Elizabeth vol. xvi pages 29–30 (1589))

In 1600 _AD, the East India Company was established, marking the beginning of British involvement in India’s trade and commerce. In 1608 _AD, William Hawkins arrived at the court of Mughal emperor Jahangir, and in 1611 _AD, English Captain Middleton received permission to trade at Surat from the Governor of Surat. The following year, the first fortified English factory was established at Surat. In 1615 _AD, English ambassador Sir Thomas Roe successfully secured two farmans from Jahangir who granted duty-free trade privileges to the company. The East India Company established its second factory in South India at Masulipatam in 1616 _AD. In 1632 _AD, the Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden Farman that ensured the safety and protection of English trade in India. The company’s first factory in Eastern India was established at Hariharpur, Balasore, in Orissa. Following pioneering efforts by the Dutch, the East India Company began regular shipments of saltpetre purchased from Lubana Banjara Sikhs during the reign of Charles I, reaching 170 tons by 1629 _AD and 200 tons or more annually in the 1630s _AD. The crown’s powder-makers were pleasantly surprised by the quality of this Indian saltpetre. Some years even saw a surplus, when the king’s stores were ‘sufficiently supplied,’ allowing excess saltpetre to be re-exported(Whitehorne, Certain Waies, fos, pages 22-3.). The future of England’s munitions lay with East India supplies, though this would not be recognized for a generation.

In the early 1620 _AD, the East India Company began importing saltpetre from India, purchased from Lubana Banjara Sikh traders, following the Dutch model. By 1624 _AD, they contracted to supply saltpetre for state use, breaking the royal monopoly on explosives. By the late 1620s and early 1630s _AD, imports increased significantly, and surplus was sold abroad. In the 1640s _AD, despite price fluctuations due to military demand and local supply issues, the East India Company became the primary supplier of saltpetre, replacing domestic production in England. The Council of State’s 1649 _AD decision to source saltpetre internationally led to large imports, with significant deliveries in 1651 _AD. Focusing on Bengal, where saltpetre was plentiful and inexpensive, the Company established contact with Lubana Banjara Sikh traders. By 1660 _AD, England’s military was well-supplied with saltpetre, facilitating its imperial expansion and eliminating the need for local production. Saltpetre trade operations in Bengal were carried out from Tanda, which also served as the capital of Bengal at one point in time. Tanda remained the capital of Bengal, and according to the narrative of Ralph Fitch, who visited after 1586 _AD, it had a flourishing commerce, particularly in cotton textiles. Around 1565 _AD, Sultan Sulaiman Karrani, who had compromised with Akbar, moved the capital to Tanda, west of Gaur, on the opposite riverbank. After Sultan Daud Khan Karrani’s death in the 1575 _AD Battle of Rajmahal, Mughal commander Munim Khan briefly moved the capital back to Gaur. A severe epidemic forced the population to flee, and Munim Khan died shortly after relocating the capital back to Tanda. Gaur was abandoned and became overrun by wild beasts. In 1640 _AD, Subadar Shah Shuja, having moved the capital from Dacca to Rajmahal, began clearing the jungle in Gaur to recover its treasure, discovering some coins. He likely constructed the royal gateway, Lukochuri Darwaja, at the eastern end of the citadel. In 1683 _AD, English merchant William Hedges visited the largely intact palace of Gor (Gor is also referred to as Banjaras), describing it as larger than the Sultan’s palace in Constantinople. A portion of the palace wall, known as Baisgazi, still exists, providing measurements of the palace area.

In the mid-17^th century, England imported saltpetre and gunpowder from purchased from Lubana Sikh traders of India and North Africa. In April 1644 _AD, Parliament contracted William Courten to supply enough saltpetre for 600 barrels of gunpowder. By October 1644 _AD, Courten and his partner, William Toomes, agreed to deliver saltpetre worth £12,000, payable in monthly instalments of £1,500, equating to 2,667 barrels. Despite an ordinance in December 1644 _AD reserving £6,000 from the “grand excise or new impost” for this procurement, payments soon fell into arrears. By March 1648 _AD, unpaid saltpetre men had ceased their work, causing a critical shortage for the armed forces.( Stubbe, Legends no Histories, 45; Henshaw, ‘History of the Making of Gunpowder’, 274-5; Clarke, Natural History of Nitre, 19, 53; Herman Boerhaave, A New Method of Chemistry, Including the Theory and Practice of that Art (1727), page 109.)

The Banjaras served not only as the primary transporters for the Mughals but also fulfilled a similar role for the Britishers during the 17^th century. A notable example was from June 1619 _AD, when Surat faced a sugar shortage. The English officer in charge there had to instruct his men in Agra to establish communication with the Banjaras and arrange for the supply of 100 mann of sugar to Surat annually(Factories, 1618-21, page 102.). Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who visited after Mandelslo, regarded Ahmedabad as one of India’s largest cities, praising its silk production and noting the city’s output of indigo, sugar, and saltpetre. The trade of saltpetre was monopolized by the Lubana Sikhs in Gujarat, which had the most superior and expensive gunpowder trade in the 17th century(Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy, pages 213-214). Dwarka became another important trade centre for saltpetre, with the Lubana Sikhs controlling its trade. It also emerged as a significant Sikh centre visited by Guru Nanak patshah, Bhagat Pipa, Bhagat Namdev, and Bhagat Dhanna.

The Lubana Sikhs even settled in Hampi, Bijapur, now Karnataka(Gaini Harnam Singh’s book on Lubana History.), and significantly spread the Sikh philosophy in South and Africa(Masand Of Africa, Dasa Lubana, Father of Makhan Shah Lubana, retrieved from Harpal Singh Kasoor’s Sikh weekly). The Bijapur region was rich in saltpetre and iron ore, and from where the gunpowder and arms were exported to various parts of the globe. Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana’s family got settled in Bijapur in 16^th century as this region became hub of saltpetre trade and many members attained martyrdom due to their devotion to Guru Nanak sahib‘s teachings. A license was required to deal in saltpetre, and Bahmani Kingdoms and Mughals, had granted permission to the Lubana to deal in this commodity(Jos J. L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500-1700, page 151). The Lubana Banjara Sikhs had a global monopoly over the saltpetre trade, and both Arab and European traders depended on the Lubanas for the saltpetre(Rene J. Barendse, The Arabian Seas the Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century, 2016, page 317).

The Banjaras embarked on many land and maritime trade routes, preceding European traders while demonstrating their exceptional insight and prowess in global commerce(C.F.J. Keay, India: A History (London: Harper Collins, 2000), M. Pearson, The Indian Ocean (London: Routledge, 2003), page3).

The Banjara traders possessed extensive knowledge and expertise in land and sea routes, enabling them to establish a strong presence in trade between India, Europe, and Africa. This brought jealousy among the Europeans and other traders. The more ethical trade practices of the Banjara led to significant growth for Banjara Sikh traders. The ethical trade practices adopted by the Banjara Sikhs were inspired by the ideology of Guru Nanak patshah. This ideology was fundamentally different from that of the Church. As a result, from the 16^th century onwards, Christian missionaries began studying the Sikh movement and its ideology. They aimed to develop a counter-ideology to curb the Sikh revolution. Unlike the Muslim empire, which could still be dealt with, the humanitarian principles of Sikhism posed a significant challenge. Sikhism’s emphasis on equality and the removal of elite class superiority threatened the Church’s authority and institutions that supported elitism.

The Banjara traders had an extensive and profound understanding of both secret and well-known land routes, which played a crucial role in their trading success. This deep knowledge enabled them to navigate and transport goods with remarkable speed and efficiency, outpacing other traders. Their ability to swiftly move merchandise through these routes not only gave them a competitive edge but also enhanced their reputation as reliable and efficient traders. This ethical and efficient approach helped the Banjara Sikhs establish a strong and dominant presence in trade between India, Europe, and Africa.

The history of the English East India Company’s expansion in India from the 17^th century, initially restricted by the dominance of Banjara Sikhs in trade, includes several significant events and privileges granted to the company. In 1633 _AD, the company established its first factory in Eastern India at Hariharpur, Orissa. By 1639 _AD, the local king leased Madras to the company. In 1651 _AD, they received permission to trade at Hooghly in Bengal. The company’s position was further bolstered when Charles II received Bombay as a dowry in 1662 _AD upon marrying Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza. In 1667 _AD, Aurangzeb granted a Farman allowing the company to trade in Bengal. The company’s headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687 _AD. In 1691 _AD, the Governor of Bengal granted the company Dastaks for a fixed duty payment, a move later endorsed by emperor Farrukhsiyar through a significant royal Farman, commonly known as the Magna Carta of the company, granting substantial trade concessions. After the Battle of Lohgarh between Sikhs and Mughals (1710-1716 _AD), in 1717 _AD, the Mughal empire transferred the lucrative saltpetre trade from the Banjara Sikhs to European hands. These developments significantly strengthened the company’s foothold and trade operations in India.